Managing Credit Cards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managing Credit Cards - Essay Example However, there are a few things that go un-noticed. Credit cards come with a premium. Prompt repayments will help avoid undue tension and misunderstandings. Experts believe that the majority of U.S. citizens have at least one credit card, if not two. Credit cards are an important source of identification as well; a credit card is mandatory for renting a car. Used wisely, a credit card provides a cushion on purchases by a long way before charges are levied. But yes, there are a few things to be kept in mind before one considers making a purchase, and there are ways to control the way one uses his/her credit card to avoid heavy debts. The purpose of this study is to find ways to protect students from falling into greater debts by following certain principals. This forms the focus of this paper. Many consumers find themselves in serious trouble over repayment. Only a few are able to take advantage of the benefits offered by credit cards, primarily because they follow the simple procedure of repaying their credit on or before time. Many fall back on the centuries old practice of carrying a balance for months, paying a part of the principal amount and an accrued interest. One thing that they fail to notice is that they could end up paying an all-time high of 23% at some point of time, a huge dent in one's pocket. Most credit card holders are so addicted to using the card that they end up being impulsive buyers. For the record, a survey in 1999 showed that American consumers were charged approximately $1.2 trillion on their general-purpose credit cards! (How Credit Cards Work, Howstuffworks. 2006) This has since gone up considerably. How does the credit card work When a customer uses his/her credit card at a merchant shop, the bank that issued the card, credits the account of the merchant on the sale slip(s) receipts. This amount is then billed to the card holder at the end of the billing period. The cardholder, in turn, pays the bank either the entire amount or in monthly installments with interest. When backlogs on installments occur, the interest increase and repayments become harder. This is one area that credit card users should strive to stay away from. Regular repayments will help stay away from trouble. Credit is an important economic force of great social magnitude. Cultural expectations with rewards for good payment records and sanctions for violating creditor expectations are all too familiar. Thus, promotion of consumer credit and punishment for nonconformity with creditor expectations emerges as a significant dialectical relationship (Klein, 1999). 3.0 Solution to the Problem Students find credit cards extremely user -friendly and handy. Most of their transaction in campus and elsewhere are performed by using a credit card. Students need to avoid unnecessary expenses, such as on clothes, entertainment and travel. Students wanting to get away for the weekend end up hiring automobiles to commute to places away from the campus and incur heavy bills. Students end up paying these bills through their credit cards. Always assess the comfort zone limit of credit that one can avail before embarking on a

Roman State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Roman State - Essay Example The Romans usually described by their cultural-identity in very simple terms, which included the use of Latin language, regard for traditional Latin literature, loyalty to Roman laws and hereditary civilization. Else - everyone who wasn't a Romanian and didn't want to share this way of life - was barbarian (P.J. Geary, 2001, pp. 107-109). By the similar gauge, all persons who lived inside the borders of Rome were, theoretically, tied by their widespread contribution in Roman culture (P.J. Geary, 2001, pp. 107-109). Following the fall of Alexander and the rejection of Greek domination in the 3rd century BC, the Illyrians twisted their fates to piracy (P.A. Brunt, 1976, pp. 161-74). Carrying out their invasions from the isolated waterfronts of the coastline, they devastate the shoreline of Italy along with Greece and victimized the commerce of the Adriatic. In return to help calls from Greece, Rome demanded a termination of the piracy, but the Illyrians discarded. This negative response caused two consecutive trounces in the Roman wars of 229 and 219 BCE. Illyria, but, remained an influential Empire with its center at Skodra, until 180 BCE, when the Dalmatians stated themselves autonomous of Ruler Gentius (P.A. Brunt, 1976, pp. 161-74). ... They, but, opposed to yield Romans annexation until the earliest part of the 1st century CE. They tied in an endeavor with the Pannonians and to set free their provinces from Romans in 6 C.E. and they were not finally controlled until 9 C.E. by Augustus and Tiberius (P.A. Brunt, 1976, pp. 161-74). From that time on, the entire of Illyria was occupied and unified as the Roman territory of Illyricum and finally developed to be one of the major employing grounds for the Rome's army. Finally, as it developed into highly-Romanized, it was acknowledged as the hometown of some Emperors counting Diocletion. After the demise of King Prasutagus (AD 50-60), though, the Roman overseers in Britain made the Iceni a subject populace. In Iceni, Boudicca was a true combatant ruler. In 60-61 A.D., she enthused and directed the biggest rebellion in opposition to Romans in Britain. Rome had got the wrong impression about Boudicca and the Iceni. Instead of yielding to Romans, Boudicca lifted up a massive army and guided them in opposition to Roman's forces in Britain. Nine out of ten Rome's legions were busy in Wales, combating with Druids. There was less-effective resistance as Boudicca and her territorial army swept into the business centre of Londinium on the Thames (Guy De La Bedoyere, 2003, pp. 64). Rome routed the Britons in one of the very old world's most blood-spattered massacres. The Romans way of life was not as good as all over the place than it is nowadays, mainly for the minor classes. The command was an armed domination - a benevolent one, but domination however. Possessing complete Roman nationality, the former soldiers were at the peak of the 'totem pole' amongst citizens. This was particularly significant as the essential feature of Romanization demanded the

How can insurance be used to decrease healthcare costs and increase Essay

How can insurance be used to decrease healthcare costs and increase quality of care - Essay Example The quality of the treatment is another problem that needs consideration. Most of the uninsured and low-income groups are not in a position to get good quality healthcare. The present essay is intended to study a brief history of healthcare industry and to analyze problems and reasons for the high costs associated. The proposals that are put forward for the reformation of current state of healthcare system also would be analyzed so as to reach a conclusion on the best strategy to be adopted so as to decrease the costs of healthcare and to increase the quality of the healthcare. The health insurance plans began in United States of America during the civil war that took place during 1861 to 1865 (Murray, 2007). At that time only accidents that was caused during transport and that too through either rail or steamboat had any coverage for insurance. Since then more and more plans, which provided coverage for most of the illness were added and in the year 1847, Massachusetts Health Insurance of Boston offered the first group policy with a lot of benefits. Individual disability and illness policies were issued by 1890. Arguments or cry for modern group health insurance plan was started in United States only in 1920s and by that time it was far behind many of the European countries. But there was no political pressure for such a law. Reformers started to ask the cost of medical care instead of wages lost due to sickness mainly because the former was much higher than the latter in as early as 1920s. During this period itself the health care available to poor people in the country was quite inadequate. The first company to offer health insurance coverage for all its employees was General Motors (Murray, 2007). The depression that gulped the country in 1930's resulted in more insurance coverage for unemployed and aged people. There was no priority for healthcare insurance at that time. Blue cross, which is a non-profit organization, began to offer health insurance in a number of states during this period. In Blues every one irrespective of age or sex or their disease conditions were charged the same premium. Since the Blues were created by hospitals, potential patients were encouraged to sign up (Noah, 2007). It was in 1940's that the present practice of employer-based system of health insurance was first offered (Noah, 2007). This was in an effort to combat the wage and price controls during the Second World War. The labor unions urged for better benefits and tax-free employer sponsored health insurance. The employers had to attract their employees and so they offered whatever that was asked for. Prepaid group healthcare was started at this time. President Truman was a proponent of national health program plan in which the government would be the payer of the whole of the American society. At that time it was opposed by American Medical Association and the law or bill could

Narrative Essay Example Essay Example for Free

Narrative Essay Example Essay Have you ever been in one of those never ending conversations? The ones where the speaker goes on and on for ages about a topic that you do not understand and could care even less about? Have you ever felt like a joke went straight over your head or that you were missing something as you struggled to find the context in a conversation? That is an everyday occurrence for people like me, affectionately called Aspies: people who have what is known as Asperger’s Syndrome. Since being diagnosed with this, everyone who has been aware of it has felt the need to make some sort of accommodation for my ‘disability. ’ A diagnosis that society feels I need because I think differently than the rest. How does society define you? I have spent my entire life trying to prove that our labels do not matter in comparison to our contributions to society. Aspies are very socially awkward. We cannot read non-verbal cues, societal niceties are often thought strange and hard to grasp, and we tend to be more than a little introverted. I have a very ‘mild’ case. No, I cannot read social cues. Yes, society’s unwritten rules drive me crazy. Absolutely, I would prefer to be alone or with a small select group of people. However, none of these characteristics define me. One characteristic of Aspies is that we often have a specialized and intense interest in something. My obsession is Star Trek, particularly the alternate reality movie series starring Chris Pine, Zachary Quinto, Zoe Saldana, Simon Pegg, and Karl Urban. I once heard someone equate people with Asperger’s to the Vulcan race from Star Trek. It is quite a fitting description. Vulcans are typically calm, rational, and even keeled people, but lord help you if you manage to anger one. They do not like to be touched and have a ‘muted’ sense of their own, and others, emotions (although in truth both are so sensitive that we have to shut off our empathy in order to function). Spock, the most commonly known Vulcan, exhibits this range of emotions in the JJ Abrams 2009 Star Trek remake movie. He is coolly rational, even as his planet is destroyed, but becomes near homicidal after Kirk starts throwing disparaging comments about his mother. Even so Captain Kirk and Mr. Spock are two-thirds of a trio that has gone down in pop culture legend along with the ever snarky Dr. McCoy. The Freudian trio that everyone so loves shows that there needs to be a balance of personalities which in the case of Star Trek, as in so many others, is the cold and logical (Spock), the emotional and humanistic (McCoy), and the rational and intuitive (Kirk). There are so many labels that get thrown on people throughout their lifetime; jarhead, slut, and geek just to name a few. Not many people strictly fit in to just the one singular box to which society relegates us. Really, who wants to fit in just one category? Every person is, as my friend Marilyn would say, a unique and beautiful snowflake. Having Asperger’s certainly qualifies me as a ‘special snowflake’, but there are some drawbacks. One of those is that we find it incredibly difficult to discuss our personal lives and often the only people who are aware of our personal thoughts and feelings are those who are in our close inner circle. One of my inner circle in high school was a girl named Jules. She was, without a doubt, the poster child for the school. She was beautiful, the head cheerleader who competed in beauty pageants and was the prom princess. It would have been so easy for her to have been content with being well loved by the community just because she was pretty and popular. Jules was not like that though. She was the vice president of our class three years running. She graduated a mere . 0002 from being the salutatorian. She was involved in the student community service club and the school’s religious advocacy team. Jules could have been content with her place as a cheerleader in the status quo, but she chose to defy society’s expectations of her. Within those societal labels is one of the most interesting phenomena; the labels are so generalized. Take for instance the geek or nerd box. It is a label that I accept as one of the closest fit for identifying me because I love to read, can quote passages of Harry Potter on a whim, and spend entirely too much of my time on FanFiction, just to name of few of my personal quirks. There are so many different ways that people are relegated to this outlier corner. Trekkies, Whovians, people who like anime and manga, movie nerds, and people who love working with technology are just small portion of the different kinds of people that are defined as a nerd. The labels that limit us so much do not even completely define us. They do not fully describe who we are as people or give full insight into our personalities. In my lifetime some of the most extroverted, party-hard people were nerds and some of the quietest and shy were cheerleaders. Bringing us full circle, I am an Aspie. However, I have gotten better with time and a little coaching at understanding social cues. I understand that the rant that I have been going on for the last three pages probably does not interest you. You have done the exact same things before. You have gone on and on about something that you are passionate about without regard for the interest level of those around you. I could go on for hours, yet sometimes being concise is better. I doubt there are many people who have not at least heard of The Breakfast Club. Its last remarks so poignantly drives the concept home: Brian Johnson: You see us as you want to see us In the simplest terms, in the most convenient definitions. But what we found out is that each one of us is a brain Andrew Clark: and an athlete Allison Reynolds: and a basket case Claire Standish: a princess John Bender: and a criminal Brian Johnson: Does that answer your question? Sincerely yours, the Breakfast Club. To you, who, whatever box you may have been stuck in or maybe even embraced all on your own, remember labels are just for cans of soup. The Breakfast Club. Dir. John Hughes. Perf. Emilio Estevez, Judd Nelson, Molly Ringwald. 1985. Universal, 2003. DVD.

The Practical Use of Research

The Practical Use of Research The term Research is an often misused term. Its usage in everyday language is very different from the strict scientific meaning. The Oxford Dictionary of Current English defines it as the study of materials and sources in other to establish facts and reach new conclusions. The term Research is a multi-faceted concept that has attracted numerous views. It is both a process and an outcome. But no matter the dimension, it should lead to understanding of an outcome. Research refers to empirical data collection in the pursuit of scientific endeavour usually in the form of an experiment, survey or evaluation (Australian Psychological Society, Code of Ethics). According to Osuala (2005), Research is simply the process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is a most important tool for advancing knowledge, for promoting progress, and for enabling man to relate more effectively to his environment, to accomplish his purposes, and to resolve his conflicts. Another school of thought defines research as the process of investigation, an examination of a subject from different points of view. It is not just a trip to the library to pick up a stock of materials, or picking the first hits from a computer search, but the hunt for the truth. It is also getting to know a subject by reading up on it, reflecting , playing with the ideas, choosing the area that interest you and following up on them. In other wards it is a way you educate yourself (Denscombe, 1998). Creswell (2003) identifies research as the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is therefore the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. From the above definitions of the concept and from my own judgment, I can state from a broad sense of the word that research include the gathering of empirical data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge. It also involves a dedicated system of scientific methodology that can be used by researchers to arrive at the right conclusion. The three definitions above are not entirely different from my point of view because Denscombe, 1998, seem to explain that research involves an in depth inquiry about a subject to make an informed judgment. Creswell, 2003, agrees with me that data or information obtained and process leads to an increase in knowledge of the subject. However, research is not only about the pursuit of scientific endeavours as stated by the Australian Psychological Society, Code of Ethics, (2001), but a social event as well. The limitation of scientific method must, however, be thoroughly understood. For example, science cannot deal directly with values. It can define some of the issues involved in making value-judgments, but the judgment themselves are outside the scope of science. Research is a tool for studying social events and learning about them and their interconnections so that general causal laws can be discovered, explained and documented. Knowledge of events and social laws allows society to c ontrol events and to predict their occurrence and outcomes. Research is oriented towards the discovery of the relationships that exist among the phenomena of the world in which we live. It is devoted to finding conditions under which a certain phenomenon occurs and the conditions under which it does not occur in what might appear to be similar circumstances. From the above discussions research is a series of linked activities. According to Atkinson and Bouma (1995) research processes has three main phases. These are phase one: Essential first steps Selecting, narrowing and formulating the problem to be studied. Selecting the research design. Designing and devising measures for variables. Setting up tables for analysis. Selecting a sample. Phase two: Data collection Collecting evidence or data about the research question. Summarizing and organizing data. Phase three: Analysis and interpretation of data. This involves Relating data to the research questions and hypothesis. Drawing conclusions Assessing the limitations of the study. Solution to the problem in the form of recommendation Making suggestions for further research. What Research is not Research does not include what is already known, but is reserved for activities designed to discover facts and relationships that will make knowledge more effective. Attempts to classify types of research pose a difficult problem (Best and Khan, 1993). This is because various textbooks suggest different systems of classification. These are classifications by: purpose of research; Method used in the research; and paradigm of the study. Research can be classified into two broad categories namely scientific or experimental research and social science research. For the purpose of my study I wish to explain research under social science. Social science research, irrespective of its type and nature, entails a degree of measurement. This involves categorizing and assigning values to concepts, and is diverse in nature and levels of operation. It is also a very useful procedure because it serves to ensure high quality in research. Diversity in research reflects diversity in the parameters that guide it. More precisely, it means diversity in the Ontology and epistemology that underlie the methodology, which in turn guide the research. Simply, methodologies produce different research designs, because they follow in their theoretical structure different ontological and epistemological prescriptions. Critique of my definition of research Concerns with the definition of research in my opinion may be raised by what I referred to as gathering of empirical data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge, hence a critique of my definition. Flaws or weaknesses in my definition. There has been considerable interest in recent years in the role of philosophical assumptions and paradigms in doing research. During the 1970s and 1980s prominent concerns were raised about the limits of quantitative data and methods often associated with positivism, the prevailing paradigm. Positivism assumes an objective world which scientific methods can more or less readily represent and measure, and it seeks to predict and explain causal relations among key variables. However, critics argued that positivistic methods strip context from meanings in the process of developing quantified measures of phenomena (Guba and Lincoln, 1994: 106). The issue therefore of empirical approach to research has been justified by its success in measuring quantitative research. However, in more recent years, scientists have been challenged to explain phenomena that defy measurement and their inability to quantitatively measure some phenomena and the dissatisfaction with the results of measurement of other phenomena which have led to an intense search for other approaches to study human phenomena. This interest has led to an acceptance of qualitative research approach which does not need empirical data to discover knowledge. One cannot help but to stuck by the success of qualitative research methods in the marketplace of academic ideas (Atkinson, 1995, p. 117). The background of using qualitative methods to study human phenomena is rooted in the social sciences. This tradition came about because aspects of human science were unable to be described fully using quantitative research methods. More recently, the practice of qualitative rese arch has expanded to clinical settings because empirical approaches have proven to be of limited service in answering some of the challenges and pressing clinical questions, especially where human subjectivity and interpretation are involved (Thorne, 1997, p. 28). However, the use of qualitative research has its own flaws as well. It is unable to study relationships between variables with the degree of accuracy that is required to establish social trends. Empirical scientists who support the Cartesian framework believe that if objective measurement cannot be assigned to a phenomenon, then the importance and thus the existence of the phenomenon may be in question. Many contemporary scientists and philosophers question the value of this system, particularly in situations that include humans and their interactions with other humans. Data quality is very important for the research purpose and if care is not taken often, critics think the nature of data collection could lead to the production of large amounts of useless information. Empirical data should not be the approach of investigating social actions to interpret and understand the actors reasons for social actions, but to subject their action into reality. Information and facts Others may say that what may be a piece of information to one researcher may be irrelevant to another. Therefore how do we determine relevant information or facts for research? Quantitative research methodology has its weaknesses, among other things for the way in which it perceives reality, validity and the methods it uses as well as the relationship it establishes with the researched. Qualitative research methodology has been criticized, among other things for not being able to cope with demands related to reliability, objectivity, representativeness and the value of collected data. Advancement of Knowledge; Again, critiques think that in research people may omit evidence that may not agree with their opinion and could produce inadequate information which does not represent the facts. In other words, beliefs may be established on insufficient evidence. Therefore improper conclusions or inferences owing to personal prejudices may be drawn. The common response to these criticisms is that, these concepts are strengths and not weaknesses of my definition. With the underlying terms or concepts that I have used in my definition, let me consider the following; Empiricism. Empirism goes back to the writings of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and is directly associated with the work of Francis Bacon (1651-1626), John Locke (1632-1704) and David Hume (1711-1776). Empiricism supports the view that knowledge come through experience mediated through the senses and insight can only be achieved through pure experiences. Empiricism assigns a high value to experience and gives primacy to facts. Hence, observation and experience offer the basis of knowledge. For Hughes, (1990), opinions are reflections of our impressions of reality. In a more radical form, empiricism argues that only things that can be verified empirically exist. What cannot be verified does not exist; truths that are not based on experience are meaningless. Quality of data. Often, data collection is essential for a reliable and valid research. Data collection entails decisions and action regarding the collection of the information required to address the research question. Data processing entails grouping, presentation, analysis and the interpretations of the findings. Examine and compare data after which data should be conceptualized and analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively. Empirical data are generally relevant for analysis. Research Information here refers to any relevant material that is useful for and during the study. They may include key informants, study groups, events and methods of data collection and assistants. Ways of Gaining / advancing Knowledge The means by which man seeks knowledge to his problems can be classified under broad categories; tenacity, authority, and science. The Method of Tenacity; under this situation people hold firmly to the truth, that they know to be true because they hold firmly to it, because they have always known it to be true. Frequent repetition of such truths seems to enhance their validity. People also infer new knowledge from propositions that may be false. The Method of Authority; this method establishes belief. If the Bible says so, it is so. If a mother says it, it is true. Life could not, in fact, go on without the method of authority (Osuala, 2005). The Method of Science; Francis Bacon (1561-1626) planted the seeds of acquiring modern scientific knowledge. He suggested that conclusion should be based on observed facts. The triangulation of both inductive and deductive reasoning gave birth to the scientific method. This method has self-correction aspects which it is believed no other method of attaining knowledge has. There are built-in checks all along the way of this method. These checks are so conceived and used that they control and verify the scientists activities and conclusions to the end of attaining dependable knowledge outside himself. A scientist does not accept a statement as true even though the evidence at first looks promising. Dependable knowledge is attained through science because science ultimately appeals to evidence; propositions are subjected to an empirical test. Conclusion: From the above discussions research in my opinion is a process by which we come to know what we want to know. It is a series of linked activities but should not be seen as a set of rigid steps to be followed. The obvious function of research is to add to existing store of knowledge and sometimes remove inappropriate or inapplicable theory. The three definitions and my personal own on research all go to add to further clarify the meaning of research as being purposive in the solution of a given problem, demands logical and objective approach, involves gathering data from primary and secondary sources. It also demands accurate and adequate knowledge about what already exist and how others have tackled it.

Japanese Foreign Policy In The Prewar Era History Essay

Japanese Foreign Policy In The Prewar Era History Essay During the early 20th century, Japan was confronted with growing pressures on its already scarce resources that compelled its leaders to pursue increasingly militaristic solutions. In fact, during the first half of the 20th century, Japan engaged in a series of military adventures in Korea and China that were specifically designed to improve the availability and reliability of its supply chains for vital resources. In the 21st century, some scholars may question whether these same goals could not have been achieved through increased international trade rather than an expansionist policy. A close examination of the conditions in which these events occurred, though, shows that the proximate cause for these outcomes was the strategic naivetà © of the Japanese leadership based on its past successes combined with internal political rivalries. To determine the facts, this paper provides a review of the relevant literature concerning the causes of pre-war Japans policy of expansion, includ ing an analysis of the relative weight of various domestic and external factors to determine whether it would have been possible for pre-war Japanese leaders to pursue a pacifist trading-centered strategy that would become the defining characteristic of postwar Japanese foreign policy. A summary of the research and important findings are presented in the conclusion. Review and Analysis In many ways, the foreign policy decisions that led to Japans attack on Pearl Harbor were based on the opportunistic mindset that prevailed among the nations leadership that the nation would succeed in any military enterprise. This optimistic mindset was reinforced by several extraordinary events in the historical record that supported this view. According to Okazaki, Because the only two large-scale attempts at invasion of Japan in recorded Japanese history were both scattered by typhoons, the Japanese believe that they are a nation favored by God, and are optimistic about international affairs to a greater degree than any other nation (p. 5). This assertion is supported by Satos observation that, A nations foreign policy may directly or indirectly be affected by a variety of factors [including] weather conditions.  [1]  (p. 369). In addition, Japans favorable geographic proximity also reinforced a mindset among Japanese political leaders that the nation was naturally protected from outsiders. In this regard, Sato emphasizes that, A distinctive feature in the international environment surrounding modern Japan is its relative isolation from and peripheral position with reference to the worlds major powers.  [2]  The Japanese leadership interpreted the countrys relative isolation and its historic relationships with its larger neighbors as being sufficient grounds for a sense of national security. For instance, according to Okazaki, The historic background might explain this Japanese attitude towards national security. Certainly Japan was secure because China, the traditional superpower in East Asia, maintained restraint on foreign expeditions, including military ones, since the time that Japan entered international politics.  [3]  With the natural geographic advantage, Japan was accustomed to its success in international relations and wanted to achieve what the western countries have: Imperialism and Expansionism. This powerful combination of fortuitous weather-related events and geographic location instilled the idea that Japan was destined for greater things into Japanese foreign policymakers, a perception that was reinforced by the Bushido code and track record of military successes in the field. This type of outcome is congruent with Satos observation that national policymakers typically rely on their unique interpretation of these factors in formulating foreign policy.  [4]  For example, Sato advises that, Factors with the potential for exercising long-term influence on a nations foreign policy may be divided into three groups: the realities of the international environment and national power; the attitudes within the society toward the international environment; and the special characteristics of a nations foreign policy formulation process.  [5]  With the foreign policy formulating process already skewed to fulfill the goal to be a stronger and imperialistic country, Japan was a lmost destined to go towards the Empire route and begin its conquest for more resources and power. Furthermore, the international environment at that time was already a heavily imperialistic one as most of the countries in Asia were already in the state of colonization or something close to it. With these factors, the external and internal factors has heavily influence the long-term agenda for Japans foreign policy. More importantly for the formulation of pre-war Japanese foreign policy, this unique interpretation of world events and Japans destiny would have profound implications for choosing military solutions over diplomatic ones during the pre-war era.  [6]  After all, the historical record supported the expansionist view and Japans economic security was at stake. For instance, Sato emphasizes that, Aside from the confrontation between Japan and the Western powers over opening the doors of the country in the late Tokugawa period, the only instance of a direct threat to Japan s security occurred when Russia advanced into Manchuria and further increased its influence over Korea early in the twentieth century.  [7]  Saying Japan increased its influence over Korea early in the 20th century is like saying a drowning man has moist skin, though, and Japans formal annexation of its protectorate on the Korean peninsula in 1910 followed its victory in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.  [8]   In reality, Korea was the keystone to Japanese expansionist policies during the first half of the 20th century due in large part to its strategic location between Russia to the north and China to the west. In fact, Okazaki emphasizes that, In all the wars involving Japan prior to World War II, the key strategic territory was the Korean peninsula. Even thirty years after the Korean War, deployment of U.S. forces in East Asia is centered on the Peninsula.  [9]  In this regard, Japanese expansionist policies during this period in history were not unlike the lebensraum, or living space policies used by Germany prior to and throughout World War II to expand its geographic territory and access to valuable resources. For example, Barhart reports that, The roots of Japans aggressive, expansionist foreign policy have often been traced to its concern over acute economic vulnerability.  [10]   During the period immediately preceding the outbreak of World War II, a growing debate over the proper course of Japanese foreign policy drive toward national economic self-sufficiency was hampered by divisive internal and external policies.  [11]  Despite growing pressure from the international community in general and the United States in particular, Japans foreign policy was shaped as much by military leaders as civilian politicians. According to Barnhart, Japans internal political dynamics, especially the bitter rivalry between its army and navy, played a far greater role in propelling the nation into war with the United States than did its economic condition or even pressure from Washington.  [12]  The role of the military in shaping Japanese foreign policy pre-World War II is also cited by Snyder who advises, A belligerent, zero-sum approach to politics was deeply rooted in the Bushido code of the samurai and permeated traditional Japanese culture. Thus, the Pacific war was simply a Kurosawa epic in modern battle gear.  [13]   This seemingly plausible explanation, though, fails to take into account the role played by the political leadership during this formative period in Japanese history. By fixing the lions share of the responsibility for Japans expansionist policies strictly on the military, historians run the risk of overlooking the other salient forces that were at work in shaping pre-war Japanese foreign policy. In this regard, Snyder emphasizes that, The Bushido code obviously served as the legitimating ideology of a military ruling elite, not just a belief system. Moreover, it leaves unexplained huge variations in Japanese strategic thinking over time and across groups.  [14]  The contribution of Japanese political leaders in shaping pre-war foreign policy was highlighted by Pyle who describes the Meiji leaders as being tired of Japans economic backwardness and sense of inferiority to the West.  [15]  As a result, Japanese political leaders were amenable to reshaping their country in a mod ern image notwithstanding what these actions would have on Japanese culture. In this regard, Pyle emphasizes that the Japanese political leaders were thus ready and willing to sacrifice time-honored institutions to achieve their goals. The Meiji leaders adopted European legal codes, imported thousands of advisers, and built the most centralized state in Japanese history.  [16]  The Meiji leaders also fought wars with the dual goal of acquiring resources while doing so in an orderly and legal fashion that would establish Japan as an equal with Western nations.  [17]   Taken together, it is apparent that there were increasing internal rivalries between political and military factions that had distinctly different visions of what type of foreign policies Japan should pursue in furthering its expansionist goals. In sum, a combination of expansionist policies combined with modernization reforms domestically was used by foreign policymakers to lead Japan into the second half of the 20th century. For example, historians such as Barnhart emphasize that this approach was responsible for Japans military adventurism in the pre-World War II years. In this regard, Barnhart advises, From the commencement of the Meiji Restoration to the conclusion of the Pacific War, Japan pursued the status of a great power through expansion abroad and reform at home.  [18]  Likewise, Barnhart notes that Japans experiences with Germany in World War I confirmed the need for domestic reform combined with expansionist foreign policies that would help ensure the nations econom ic security in the future. According to Barhart, the nature of warfare itself had changed substantively during the early 20th century and the waging of total war meant that national security required a viable domestic infrastructure that could withstand this type of all-out warfare long enough for Japan to prevail. In this regard, Barnhart emphasizes that, Certain officers [in the Imperial Army] concluded that, for their Asian empire, the lessons of the European conflict were ominous. Future wars would be fought not only with guns but with the entire resources of nations, from engineers to doctors, from cotton to iron ore. Without these requisites of economic security, the mightiest army would be paralyzed.  [19]   Given Japans lack of natural resources, these issues were even more poignant during this formative period in foreign policymaking. Indeed, Barnhart points out that, Without a modern industrial base that could be mobilized in time of need, even these requisites would prove useless. A nation that could not supply all of its own needs in wartime, a nation that was vulnerable to economic pressure from other nations, would be neither truly secure nor truly sovereign.  [20]  A fresh and expensive war with China in 1937, though, made it virtually impossible for Japan to realize the complete goal of becoming economically self sufficient, and this conflict in particular served to further underscore Japans economic vulnerability.  [21]  This threat to Japanese national security was balanced by the aforementioned positive Bushido-based mindset among some leaders that supported straightforward military solutions for these complex domestic problems on the one hand with others that sought a more moderate path to achieving Japans goals of acquiring new resources and achieving economic security. Indeed, some authorities suggest that the expansionist policies used in the pre-World War II era were less important for some foreign policymakers than the domestic reforms that would be required to sustain any gains achieved on the battlefield. Many Japanese foreign policymakers, though, defined the nature of the political, economic and social reality that was faced by Japan during the pre-World War II years in ways that were supportive of expansionist views rather than a strictly pragmatic analysis of world events and Japans place among the international community that was based in reality.  [22]   Conclusion Taken together, the events that led Japan into World War II appear to be inexorable in nature, and given the divisiveness among foreign policymakers during this period, the outcome could not have been easily changed from an expansionist policy to a pacifist trading-centered strategy. In fact, the handwriting was on the wall and Japans expansionist approach to achieving its goal of economic security was well underway. The research showed, though, that Japans internal political problems, including the intense rivalries between military leaders, served to shape pre-World War II Japanese foreign policy in ways that would make it difficult to respond to economic pressures from the Western world in general and the United States in particular without resorting to military solutions. In the final analysis, it is reasonable to conclude that if the Japanese leadership of the early 20th century could have foreseen what pacifist trading opportunities can do for economic security, they would not have resorted to the expansionist approach that included the annexation of Korea, warring on China and the rest of Asia and attacking Pearl Harbor. These efforts were clearly influenced by a misguided application of traditional Bushido machismo that resulted in Japan being leveled and rebuilt in the pacifist trading model anyway.

The Role of Religion in Roman Society Essay -- Religion Roman Gods Bel

The Role of Religion in Roman Society Throughout the history of Rome, from the monarchy to the late empire, religion had played a great role in it's society and was involved in almost every aspect of the life of the Roman citizen. It was common for each house to have it's own patron god/gods and ,on special occasions, the head of the house would make a sacrifice to the personal gods of the family. Also, great festivals were usually held in honor of certain gods and would include spectacles like chariot races and Gladiatorial fights. The religious practices of the ancient Romans are best remembered with grand temples, great festivals and Christian persecution to the final acceptance of Christianity within the Roman empire over the traditional pagan religions. The Roman religious practices can be divided into three phases which span from the founding of the city to the fall of the empire. The First Phase (753 BC to 500 BC) - The first phase of Roman religion dated from the founding of the city to the early republic. This phase occurred before the Roman civilization had really adopted the Greek ways and so the religious practices of this time consisted of only three gods and these gods were known as the Archaic Triad. The gods of the archaic Triad were Jupiter (Jove) ,Mars and Quirinus. These gods had their Greek counterparts and would later be identified with them. Jupiter was the supreme master god and so he was associated with Zeus of Greek mythology. Ares was the god of power and war and so he was associated with his Greek counterpart, Ares and Quirinus was the god of the Roman people in general and he had no Greek counterpart. Mars was valued and worshipped more by the conquering and warlike Romans than Ares was to the Greeks and ,as a result, he had The Fields of Mars named after him. The Fields of Mars was located outside of Rome and it is where the soldiers wou ld train. The Second Phase (500 BC to 313 AD) - Before the end of the 6th century BC Greek influence had begun to affect Roman religion and this resulted in the transformation from the Archaic Triad to the more Greek influenced Captioline triad. In this triad the gods Mars and Quirinus were replaced by Juno and Minerva. As time went on ,during the second phase, the Romans adopted more variations and the number of Roman deities grew as ,like the Greek counterparts, they had a god for alm... ... future leaders. As the Imperial system gained hold, it was common practice for the Emperors to accept divine honors before their deaths. These living gods, in some cases, required sacrificial rituals as signs of loyalty and ingrained themselves with the older more traditional pagan gods. The requirement of a sacrifice to the emperor, as well as the forced belief in the complete pantheon became a significant source of conflict with early Christians. As Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god, persecution of the Christians and conflict with the cult was a constant source of strife. Emperor worship would continue until late in the western Empire until the reign of Constantine. In the early 4th century AD, Constantine either converted to Christianity or made it an acceptable part of Roman religion, eliminating the emperor deification altogether. Later Emperors such as Julian attempted to revive the old ways, but the deeply rooted Mithraism, and Christian cults combined were firmly set within Roman society. By 392 AD, Emperor Theodosius I banned the practice of pagan religions in Rome altogether and Christianity was, without question, the official religion of the state.